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| Foreword | xiii | |
| Preface | xv | |
| About the Author | xvii | |
| Acknowledgements | xix | |
| Note on the Examples and Costs | xxi | |
| List of Symbols | xxiii | |
| 1 | Introduction | 1 |
| 1.1 | Photovoltaics - What's It All About? | 1 |
| 1.2 | Overview of this Book | 10 |
| 1.3 | A Brief Glossary of Key PV Terms | 11 |
| 1.3.1 | Relevant Terminology Relating to Meteorology, Astronomy and Geometry | 11 |
| 1.3.2 | PV Terminology | 13 |
| 1.4 | Recommended Guide Values for Estimating PV System Potential | 14 |
| 1.4.1 | Solar Cell Efficiency rjPV | 14 |
| 1.4.2 | Solar Module Efficiency r\M | 14 |
| 1.4.3 | Energy Efficiency (Utilization Ratio, System Efficiency) rjE | 15 |
| 1.4.4 Annual Energy Yield per Installed Kilowatt of Peak Installed Solar | ||
| Generator Capacity | 15 | |
| 1.4.5 | PV Installation Space Requirements | 17 |
| 1.4.6 | Cost per Installed Kilowatt of Peak Power | 17 |
| 1.4.7 | Feed-in Tariffs; Subsidies | 18 |
| 1.4.8 | Worldwide Solar Cell Production | 20 |
| 1.4.9 | Installed Peak Capacity | 21 |
| 1.4.10 | The Outlook for Solar Cell Production | 22 |
| 1.5 | Examples | 24 |
| 1.6 | Bibliography | 25 |
| 2 | Key Properties of Solar Radiation | 27 |
| 2.1 | Sun and Earth | 27 |
| 2.1.1 | Solar Declination | 27 |
| 2.1.2 | The Apparent Path of the Sun | 28 |
| 2.2 | Extraterrestrial Radiation | 31 |
| 2.3 | Radiation on the Horizontal Plane of the Earth's Surface | 32 |
| 2.3.1 | Irradiated Energy H on the Horizontal Plane of the Earth's Surface | 34 |
| 2.4 | Simple Method for Calculating Solar Radiation on Inclined Surfaces | 39 |
| 2.4.1 | Annual Global Irradiation Factors | 44 |
| 2.4.2 | Elementary Radiation Calculation Examples for Inclined Surfaces | 47 |
| 2.5 | Radiation Calculation on Inclined Planes with Three-Component Model | 49 |
| 2.5.1 | Components of Global Radiation on the Horizontal Plane | 49 |
| 2.5.2 | Radiation Reflected off the Ground | 50 |
| 2.5.3 | The Three Components of Radiation on Inclined Surfaces | 51 |
| 2.5.4 | Approximate Allowance for Shading by the Horizon | 54 |
| 2.5.5 Effect of Horizon and Façade/Roof Edge Elevation on Diffuse Radiation | ||
| (Sky and Reflected Radiation) 5 | 8 | |
| 2.5.6 | Total Energy Incident on Inclined Surfaces (Generic Case) | 62 |
| 2.5.7 Retrospective Calculation of Irradiance Incident on Inclined Solar | ||
| Generators, Using Global Radiation Readings on the Horizontal Plane | 63 | |
| 2.5.8 | Examples of Radiation Calculations with the Three-Component Method | 64 |
| 2.6 | Approximate Annual Energy Yield for Grid-Connected PV Systems | 68 |
| 2.6.1 | Examples for Approximate Energy Yield Calculations | 69 |
| 2.7 | Composition of Solar Radiation | 69 |
| 2.8 | Solar Radiation Measurement | 71 |
| 2.8.1 | Pyranometers | 71 |
| 2.8.2 | Reference Cells | 71 |
| 2.8.3 | Pyranometer Versus Reference Cell Measurements | 73 |
| 2.9 | Bibliography | 76 |
| 3 | Solar Cells: Their Design Engineering and Operating Principles | 79 |
| 3.1 | The Internal Photoelectric Effect in Semiconductors | 79 |
| 3.2 | A Brief Account of Semiconductor Theory | 81 |
| 3.2.1 | Semiconductor Doping | 81 |
| 3.2.2 | The P-N Junction | 83 |
| 3.2.3 | Characteristic Curves of Semiconductor Diodes | 85 |
| 3.3 The Solar Cell: A Specialized Semiconductor Diode with a Large Barrier Layer | ||
| that is Exposed to Light | 86 | |
| 3.3.1 | Structure of a Crystalline Silicon Solar Cell | 86 |
| 3.3.2 | Equivalent Circuit of a Solar Cell | 87 |
| 3.3.3 | Characteristic Curves of Solar Cells | 89 |
| 3.4 | Solar Cell Efficiency | 94 |
| 3.4.1 | Spectral Efficiency rjs (of Solar Cells with a Single Junction) | 94 |
| 3.4.2 | Theoretical Efficiency qT (of Solar Cells with a Single Junction) | 97 |
| 3.4.3 | Practical Efficiency Y]PV (at a Junction) | 100 |
| 3.4.4 | Efficiency Optimization Methods | 104 |
| 3.5 The Most Important Types of Solar Cells and the Attendant Manufacturing | ||
| Methods | 108 | |
| 3.5.1 | Crystalline Silicon Solar Cells | 108 |
| 3.5.2 | Gallium Arsenide Solar Cells | 111 |
| 3.5.3 | Thin-Film Solar Cells | 114 |
| 3.5.4 Dye Sensitized Solar Cell (DSSC; Photoelectrochemical Solar Cells, | ||
| Grätzel Solar Cells) | 121 | |
| 3.6 | Bifacial Solar Cells | 122 |
| 3.7 | Examples | 122 |
| 3.8 | Bibliography | 124 |
| 4 | Solar Modules and Solar Generators | 127 |
| 4.1 Solar Modules ¡27 | ||
| 4.2 | Potential Solar Cell Wiring Problems | 138 |
| 4.2.1 | Characteristic Curves of Solar Cells in all Quadrants | 138 |
| 4.2.2 | Wiring Solar Cells in Series | 140 |
| 4.2.3 | Parallel-Connected Solar Cells | 147 |
| 4.3 | Interconnection of Solar Modules and Solar Generators | 149 |
| 4.3.1 | Series Connection of Solar Modules to a String | 149 |
| 4.3.2 | Parallel-Connected Solar Modules | 152 |
| 4.3.3 | Solar Generators with Parallel-Connected Series Strings | 152 |
| 4.3.4 | Solar Generators with Solar Module Matrixing | 159 |
| 4.4 | Solar Generator Power Loss Resulting from Partial Shading and Mismatch Loss | 160 |
| 4.4.1 | Power Loss Induced by Module Shading | 160 |
| 4.4.2 | Mismatch Loss Attributable to Manufacturing Tolerances | 163 |
| 4.4.3 | Mismatch Loss Attributable to String Inhomogeneity | 166 |
| 4.5 | Solar Generator Structure | 166 |
| 4.5.1 | Solar Generator Mounting Options | 166 |
| 4.5.2 | Mounting Systems | 176 |
| 4.5.3 | Electrical Integration of Solar Generators | 184 |
| 4.5.4 | DC Wiring Power Loss | 196 |
| 4.5.5 | Grounding Problems on the DC Side | 198 |
| 4.5.6 | Structure of Larger-Scale Solar Generators | 199 |
| 4.5.7 | Safety Protection Against Touch Voltage | 201 |
| 4.5.8 | Factors that Reduce Solar Generator Power Yield | 202 |
| 4.6 | Examples | 217 |
| 4.7 | Bibliography | 221 |
| 5 | PV Energy Systems | 223 |
| 5.1 | Stand-alone PV Systems | 223 |
| 5.1.1 | PV System Batteries | 225 |
| 5.1.2 | Structure of Stand-alone PV Systems | 242 |
| 5.7.3 | PV Installation Inverters | 248 |
| 5.1.4 | Stand-alone Installation DC Appliances | 258 |
| 5.1.5 | Stand-alone 230 V AC PV Installations | 259 |
| 5.1.6 | Stand-alone PV Installations with Integrated AC Power Busses | 259 |
| 5.2 | Grid-Connected Systems | 262 |
| 5.2.1 | Grid-Connected Operation | 262 |
| 5.2.2 | Design Engineering and Operating Principles of PV System Inverters | 266 |
| 5.2.3 | Standards and Regulations for Grid-Connected Inverters | 277 |
| 5.2.4 | Avoidance of Islanding and Stand-alone Operation in Grid Inverters | 288 |
| 5.2.5 | Operating Performance and Characteristics of PV Grid Inverters | 302 |
| 5.2.6 Problems that Occur in Grid-Connected Systems and Possible | ||
| Countermeasures | 347 | |
| 5.2.7 | Regulation and Stability Problems in Grid Systems | 368 |
| 5.3 | Bibliography | 339 |
| 6 | Protecting PV Installations Against Lightning | 395 |
| 6.1 | Probability of Direct Lightning Strikes | 395 |
| 6.1.1 Specimen Calculation for the Annual Number of Direct Lightning | ||
| Strikes ND | 397 | |
| Contents | ||
| 6.2 | Lightning Strikes: Guide Values; Main Effects | 398 |
| 6.2.1 | Types of Lightning | 398 |
| 6.2.2 | Effects of Lightning | 399 |
| 6.2.3 | Lightning Protection Installation Classes and Efficiency | 399 |
| 6.2.4 | Use of Approximate Solutions for Lightning Protection Sizing | 399 |
| 6.3 | Basic principles of Lightning Protection | 400 |
| 6.3.1 | Internal and External Lightning Protection | 400 |
| 6.3.2 | Protection Zone Determination Using the Lightning Sphere Method | 400 |
| 6.3.3 | Protection Zone for Lightning Conductors and Lightning Rods | 401 |
| 6.3.4 | Lightning Protection Measures for Electricity Installations | 402 |
| 6.4 | Shunting Lightning Current to a Series of Down-conductors | 402 |
| 6.5 | Potential Increases; Equipotential Bonding | 404 |
| 6.5.1 | Equipotential Bonding Realization | 405 |
| 6.5.2 Lightning Current in Conductors that are Incorporated into the | ||
| Equipotential Bonding Installation | 405 | |
| 6.5.3 | Lightning Protection Devices | 407 |
| 6.6 | Lightning-Current-Induced Voltages and Current | 408 |
| 6.6.1 | Mutual Inductance and Induced Voltages in a Rectangular Loop | 409 |
| 6.6.2 | Proximity Between Down-conductors and other Installations | 413 |
| 6.6.3 | Induced Current | 415 |
| 6.6.4 | Voltages in Lightning-Current-Conducting Cylinders | 429 |
| 6.7 | PV Installation Lightning Protection Experiments | 432 |
| 6.7.1 | In troduction 43 | 2 |
| 6.7.2 | The Surge Current Generator | 432 |
| 6.7.3 | Test Apparatus for Solar Module Characteristic Curves | 433 |
| 6.7.4 | Solar Cell and Solar Module Damage Induced by Surge Current | 435 |
| 6.7.5 | Improving Module Immunity to Lightning Current | 439 |
| 6.7.6 | Mini-lightning Conductors for PV Installations | 440 |
| 6.7.7 | Measurement of Induced Voltage in Individual Modules | 440 |
| 6.7.8 | Voltage Induced in Wired Solar Generators | 450 |
| 6.7.9 | Conclusions Drawn from the Test Results | 458 |
| 6.8 | Optimal Sizing of PV Installation Lightning Protection Devices | 459 |
| 6.8.1 | Solar Module Mutual Inductance | 460 |
| 6.8.2 | Wiring Mutual Inductance | 461 |
| 6.8.3 | Specimen Calculation for Ms and vmax in a Whole String | 462 |
| 6.8.4 | Effects of Distant Lightning Strikes | 463 |
| 6.9 | Recommendations for PV Installation Lightning Protection | 470 |
| 6.9.1 | Possible Protective Measures | 470 |
| 6.9.2 | Protection Against Distant Lightning Strikes | 471 |
| 6.9.3 | Protection Against Both Distant and Nearby Strikes (up to about 20 m) | 475 |
| 6.9.4 Protection Against Direct Lightning Strikes on PV Installations | ||
| and Buildings | 476 | |
| 6.9.5 | Lightning Protection for Large-Scale Ground-Based PV Installations | 479 |
| 6.9.6 | Lightning Protection for PV Installations on Flat Roofs | 480 |
| 6.9.7 | PV Installation Lightning Protection as Prescribed by Swiss Law | 481 |
| 6.10 | Recap and Conclusions | 484 |
| 6.11 | Bibliography | 485 |
| 7 | Normalized Representation of Energy and Power of PV Systems | 487 |
| 7.1 | Introduction | 487 |
| 7.2 | Normalized Yields, Losses and Performance Ratio | 487 |
| 7.2.7 | Normalized Yields | 487 |
| 7.2.2 | Definition of Normalized Losses | 490 |
| 7.2.3 | Performance Ratio | 490 |
| 7.2.4 | New Normalized Values of Merit | 491 |
| 7.3 | Normalized Diagrams for Yields and Losses | 491 |
| 7.3.1 | Normalized Monthly and Annual Statistics | 491 |
| 7.3.2 | Normalized Daily Statistics Broken Down by Hours | 495 |
| 7.4 | Normalized PV Installation Power Output | 495 |
| 7.4.1 | Normalized Daily Diagram with Instantaneous Values | 496 |
| 7.4.2 | Derivation of Daily Energy Yield from Normalized Instantaneous Values | 497 |
| 7.4.3 | Definition of the Correction Factors kG, kT and of efficiency n, | 497 |
| 7.4.4 | Assessment Methods Using Normalized Daily Diagrams | 497 |
| 7.4.5 | Specimen Normalized Daily Diagrams | 498 |
| 7.5 | Anomaly Detection Using Various Types of Diagrams | 502 |
| 7.6 | Recap and Conclusions | 506 |
| 7.7 | Bibliography | 506 |
| 8 | PV Installation Sizing | 507 |
| 8.1 | Principal of and Baseline Values for Yield Calculations | 507 |
| 8.1.1 | Insolation Calculations | 508 |
| 8.1.2 | Determination of the Temperature Correction Factor kT | 508 |
| 8.1.3 | Defining the Solar Generator Correction Factor kG | 513 |
| 8.2 | Energy Yield Calculation for Grid-Connected Systems | 523 |
| 8.2.1 | Examples of Grid-Connected System Energy Yield | 525 |
| 8.3 | Sizing PV Installations that Integrate a Battery Bank | 533 |
| 8.3.1 | Determination of Mean Daily Appliance Power Consumption | 533 |
| 8.3.2 | Requisite Battery Capacity K | 534 |
| 8.3.3 | Solar Generator Sizing | 535 |
| 8.3.4 | Stand-alone System Sizing Tables | 538 |
| 8.3.5 | Sizing Exercises for Stand-alone Installations | 541 |
| 8.4 | Insolation Calculation Freeware | 549 |
| 8.4.1 | PVGIS Solar Irradiation Data | 550 |
| 8.4.2 | The European Satel-Light Insolation Database | 550 |
| 8.5 | Simulation Software | 550 |
| 8.6 Bibliography 55 j | ||
| 9 | The Economics of Solar Power | 553 |
| 9.1 | How Much Does Solar Energy Cost? | 553 |
| 9.1.1 | Examples of More Exact Energy Price Calculations | 555 |
| 9.1.2 | Comparison of PV and Conventional Electricity Costs | 557 |
| 9.1.3 | PV Electricity Pump Storage System Costs | 560 |
| 9.1.4 | PV Electricity Battery Storage Costs | 562 |
| 9.2 | Grey Energy; Energy Payback Time; Yield Factor | 562 |
| 9.3 | Bibliography | 506 |
| 10 | Performance Characteristics of Selected PV Installations | 569 |
| 10.1 | Energy Yield Data and Other Aspects of Selected PV Installations | 569 |
| 10.1.1 | Gfeller PV Installation in Burgdorf Switzerland | 569 |
| 10.1.2 | Mont So led PV Installation in the Jura Mountains (Elevation 1270 m) | 572 |
| 10.1.3 | Jungfraujoch PV Installation (Elevation: 3454 m) | 579 |
| 10.1.4 | Birg PV Installation (Elevation: 2670 m) | 585 |
| 10.1.5 | Stade de Suisse PV Installation in Bern | 588 |
| 10.1.6 | Newtech PV Installation with Thin-Film Solar Cell Modules | 592 |
| 10.1.7 | Neue Messe PV Installation in Munich, Germany | 600 |
| 10.1.8 | Leipziger Land PV Installation | 603 |
| 10.1.9 | Borna PV Installation with Biaxial Solar Trackers | 607 |
| 10.1.10 | Erlasee Solar Park with Biaxial Solar Trackers | 607 |
| 10.1.11 | Guadix PV Installation in Southern Spain, with Biaxial Solar Trackers | 609 |
| 10.1.12 | Biaxial Solar Tracker ENEA PV Installation near Naples, Italy | 609 |
| 10.1.13 | PV Installation in Mudgee, Australia | 611 |
| 10.1.14 | PV Installation in Springerville, Arizona | 612 |
| 10.2 | Long-Term Comparison of Four Swiss PV Installations | 614 |
| 10.3 | Long-Term Energy Yield of the Burgdorf Installation | 617 |
| 10.4 | Mean PV Installation Energy Yield in Germany | 619 |
| 10.5 | Bibliography | 620 |
| 11 | In Conclusion | 623 |
| Appendix A: Calculation Tables and Insolation Data | 633 | |
| A1 Insolation Calculation Tables | 633 | |
| A 1.1 Basic Insolation Calculation | 633 | |
| A1.2 Insolation Calculation Using the Three-Component Model | 633 | |
| A2 Aggregate Monthly Horizontal Global Insolation | 634 | |
| A3 Global Insolation for Various Reference Locations | 634 | |
| A4 Rb Factors for Insolation Calculations Using the Three-Component Model | 648 | |
| A5 Shading Diagrams for Various Latitudes | 673 | |
| A6 Energy Yield Calculation Tables | 676 | |
| A6.1 Energy Yield Calculation Tables for Grid-Connected Systems | 677 | |
| A6.2 Stand-alone Installation Sizing Tables | 679 | |
| A7 kT and kG Figures for Energy Yield Calculations | 681 | |
| A7.1 kT Figures for Various Reference Stations | 682 | |
| A7.2 kG Figures for Various Reference Stations | 682 | |
| A8 Insolation and Energy Yield Calculation Maps | 683 | |
| A8.1 Specimen Polar Shading Diagram | 683 | |
| A8.2 Insolation Maps | 683 | |
| A8.3 Maps for Estimates of Annual PV Energy Yield in Europe and Environs | 689 | |
| Appendix B: Links; Books; Acronyms; etc | 691 | |
| B1 Links to PV Web Sites | 691 | |
| Bl.l Organizations | 691 | |
| BI.2 Government Organizations | 692 | |
| B1.3 Research Organizations | 692 | |
| B1.4 Specialized Journals | 692 | |
| B2 Books on Photovoltaics and Related Areas | 693 | |
| B3 Acronyms ^95 | ||
| B4 Prefixes for Decimal Fractions and Metric Multiples | 696 | |
| B5 Conversion Factors | 696 | |
| B6 Key Physical Constants | 696 | |
| Index | 697 | |
