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| Contents | ||
| Foreword | V | |
| Authors | VII | |
| 1. | General information | 1 |
| 2. | Heat transfer | 9 |
| 2.1 | Basic equations of heat transfer | 10 |
| 2.2 | Heat conduction | 12 |
| 2.2.1 | Fourier's law | 12 |
| 2.2.2 Fourier's equation of heat conduction | ||
| (heat diffusion equation) | 12 | |
| 2.2.3 | One-dimensional steady-state conduction | 16 |
| 2.2.4 | Heat transfer from extended surfaces | 21 |
| 2.2.4.1 Heat transfer for fins with constant | ||
| cross-section | 23 | |
| 2.2.4.2 | Fin Performance | 26 |
| 2.2.5 | Transient heat conduction | 33 |
| 2.2.5.1 | System with high heat conductivity | 34 |
| 2.2.5.2 | Planar wall with convection | 39 |
| 2.2.5.3 | Infinite long cylinder with convection | 42 |
| 2.2.5.4 | Sphere with convection | 51 |
| 2.2.5.5 | The semi-infinite solid | 55 |
| 2.2.6 Numerical solution of heat conduction | ||
| problems | 55 | |
| 2.2.6.1 Numerical solution of steady state heat | ||
| conduction problems | 58 | |
| 2.2.6.2 Numerical solution of transient heat | ||
| conduction problems | 70 | |
| 2.3 | Thermal radiation | 79 |
| 2.3.1 | Blackbody radiation | 82 |
| 2.3.1.1 | The Planck distribution | 83 |
| 2.3.1.2 | Wien's displacement law | 86 |
| 2.3.1.3 | Stefan-Boltzmann law | 86 |
| 2.3.2 Surface emission - reflection, absorption, | ||
| transmission | 86 | |
| 2.3.3 Radiation exchange between diffuse, grey | ||
| surfaces | 94 | |
| 2.3.3.1 | View factors | 95 |
| 2.3.3.2 | View factors for basic geometries | 97 |
| 2.3.3.3 | Blackbody radiation exchange | 97 |
| 2.3.3.4 Radiation exchange between diffuse, grey | ||
| surfaces in an enclosure | 101 | |
| 2.3.4 | Radiation from pure gases and mixtures | 106 |
| 2.3.4.1 Absorption and radiation in gases with | ||
| constant temperatures | 106 | |
| 2.3.4.2 Emissivity of gases at a pressure of | ||
| p = 1 bar | 110 | |
| 2.3.4.3 | Radiation between gas and wall | 122 |
| 2.4 Convection heat transfer and heat transfer | ||
| coefficient | 123 | |
| 2.4.1 Determining heat transfer coefficients with | ||
| dimensionless numbers | 127 | |
| 3. | Fluid mechanics | 133 |
| 3.1 | Fluids | 134 |
| 3.2 | Fluid statics | 139 |
| 3.2.1 Pressure in liquids subjected to external | ||
| forces | 141 | |
| 3.2.2 | Forces on planar, horizontal areas | 144 |
| Furnace type Chamber furnaces for | ||
| heat treatment plants | ||
| High and low temp, | ||
| furnaces, cooling cham- | ||
| ber, charging machine, | ||
| water quench basin, | ||
| safety equipment | ||
| Max. temperature 850 °C /1,150 °C | ||
Material | ||
Heating method | ||
| 10 t | ||
| Round stocks, | ||
| wire rods, rings | ||
| Recuperator | ||
| burners, circulation | ||
| Planning, engineering, supply, erection, | ||
| start-up as well as modernization and opti- | ||
| mization of industrial and casting furnaces, | ||
| i.e. turn-key furnace plants for thermal pro- | ||
| cesses in the steel- and metal industry: | ||
| DIN EN ISO 9001:2000 certified company | ||
| Steel industry: continuous furnaces and | ||
| batch-type furnaces for heating and heat | ||
| treatment. Main emphasis on the hot rol- | ||
| ling and forging mill, as well as foundry | ||
| industry | ||
| Copper industry: melting, refining and | ||
| casting furnaces, preheating furnaces | ||
| Industrial furnaces from Andritz MAERZ are a credit to you! | ||
| B IB @|B EE m | ||
| 1ÜO IlSSi | ||
| Phone: +49 211 3 84 25 - 0 welcome-maerz@iW | ||
| Fax: +49 211 3 84 25 - 20 www.andritz-maerz | i | |
| Corneliusstr | 36 | |
| D-40215 DÜSSELDORF | ||
| 3.2.2.1 | Force on horizontal, planar area | 145 |
| 3.2.2.2 Force on vertical, planar area and center of | ||
| force | 146 | |
| 3.2.2.3 | Forces on planar, tilted areas | 148 |
| 3.3 Basic equations of the streamline theory - | ||
| Bernoulli Equation | 154 | |
| 3.3.1 | Equation of continuity | 155 |
| 3.3.2 | Stream line theory - Bernoulli Equation | 156 |
| 3.3.3 Examples for the application of the Bernoulli | ||
| equation | 159 | |
| 3.4 | Flow of fluids in pipes | 166 |
| 3.4.1 | Entrance flow in a pipe | 166 |
| 3.4.2 | Fully developed flow in pipes | 168 |
| 3.4.2.1 | Laminar flow | 169 |
| 3.4.2.2 | Turbulent flow | 175 |
| 3.5 | Friction factors for circular pipes | 176 |
| 3.5.1 | Friction factors for smooth pipes | 176 |
| 3.5.2 | Friction factors for rough pipes | 177 |
| 3.6 Pressure loss of tubes with non-circular | ||
| tubes | 180 | |
| 3.6.1 | Laminar flow | 180 |
| 3.6.2 | Turbulent flow | 181 |
| 3.7 | Pressure drop in pipe elements | 182 |
| 3.7.1 | Sudden increased cross-section | 183 |
| 3.7.2 | Sudden reduction of the diameter | 185 |
| 4. | Gaseous fuels | 191 |
| 4.1 | Systematics of fuels | 192 |
| 4.2 | Composition of gaseous fuels | 194 |
| 4.3 Properties and data of gases and gaseous | ||
| fuels | 194 | |
| 4.3.1 | Composition of a gas mixture | 199 |
| 4.3.2 | Molecular mass of a gas mixture | 200 |
| 4.3.3 | Molecular volume of a gas mixture | 200 |
| 4.3.4 | Density | 200 |
| 4.3.5 | Density ratio | 201 |
| 4.3.6 | Reference state | 201 |
| 4.3.7 | Gross calorific value Hs | 202 |
| 4.3.8 | Net calorific value Hj | 202 |
| 4.3.9 | Wobbe-number of gaseous fuels | 204 |
| 4.3.10 | Ignition temperature of a gaseous fuel | 204 |
| 4.3.11 | Ignition ratio of gaseous fuels | 205 |
| 4.3.12 | Specific heat capacity and enthalpy | 207 |
| 5. | Combustion | 219 |
| 5.1 | Basic equations of combustion | 220 |
| 5.1.1 | Reaction equations | 220 |
| 5.1.2 | Oxygen and air-fuel ratio of combustion | 225 |
| 5.1.3 | Off-gases of combustion | 226 |
| 5.1.4 | Calculation of off-gas composition | 242 |
| 5.2 | Energy balances of combustion processes | 247 |
| 5.2.1 | Combustion temperature | 249 |
| 5.2.2 | Off-gas losses | 261 |
| 5.2.3 | Combustion efficiency | 264 |
| 6. | Burners | 271 |
| 6.1 | Flame | 272 |
| 6.2 | Gas burners | 277 |
| 6.2.1 | Classification of burners | 277 |
| 6.2.2 | Burner selection | 283 |
| 6.2.3 | Special burner designs | 287 |
| 7. | Energy balances of industrial furnaces | 297 |
| 7.1 | Mass balance | 298 |
| 7.2 | Energy balance | 299 |
| 7.2.1 | First law of thermodynamics | 299 |
| 7.2.2 | Work | 302 |
| 7.2.3 | System and system boundary | 302 |
| 7.2.4 | Enthalpy, internal energy | 303 |
| 7.3 | Evaluation criteria for energy balances | 306 |
| 7.3.1 | Utilisation ratio of energy | 308 |
| 7.3.2 | Thermal efficiency | 309 |
| 7.3.3 | Definition of thermal efficiencies | 311 |
| 7.4 Efficiencies of an industrial furnace without air | ||
| preheating | 315 | |
| 7.5 Efficiencies of an industrial furnace with air | ||
| preheating | 322 | |
| 8. | Electrothermal processes | 343 |
| 8.1 Overview about electrothermal processes and | ||
| applications fields in industry | 344 | |
| 8.2 | Induction Heating | 349 |
| 8.2.1 | Physical and technical basics | 349 |
| 8.2.2 | Induction melting | 356 |
| 8.2.3 Induction heating for heat treatment, | ||
| deforming, joining and welding | 367 | |
| 8.3 | Dielectric heating | 379 |
| 8.3.1 | Physical and technical basics | 380 |
| 8.3.2 | High frequency heating | 382 |
| 8.3.3 | Microwave heating | 388 |
| 8.4 | Conductive Heating | 397 |
| 8.4.1 | Physical and technical basics | 397 |
| 8.4.2 | Technologies and applications | 400 |
| 8.4.3 | Energy supply and energy consumption | 402 |
| 8.5 | Indirect Resistance Heating | 404 |
| 8.5.1 | Physical and technical basics | 404 |
| 8.5.2 | Technologies and applications | 408 |
| 8.6 | Infrared heating | 411 |
| 8.6.1 | Physical and technical basics | 411 |
| 8.6.2 | Techniques and equipment design criteria | 413 |
| 8.6.3 | Field of application | 416 |
| 8.7 | Electric arc heating | 417 |
| 8.7.1 | Physical and technical fundamentals | 417 |
| 8.7.2 | Applications | 418 |
| 8.8 | Plasma heating | 424 |
| 8.8.1 | Physical and technical basics | 424 |
| 8.8.2 Application fields of plasma beam | ||
| processes | 427 | |
| 8.8.3 Application fields of plasma heat treatment | ||
| and plasma surface technologies | 428 | |
| 8.9 | Laser heating | 430 |
| 8.9.1 | Physical and technical basics | 431 |
| 8.9.2 | Areas of application | 433 |
| 8.10 | Electron beam heating | 436 |
| 8.10.1 | Physical and technical fundamentals | 436 |
| 8.10.2 | System technique and fields of application | 439 |
| 8.11 | Electrical discharge machining | 442 |
| 8.11.1 | Physical and technical basics | 442 |
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| 8.11.2 | Application techniques | 443 |
| 8.11.3 | Plant assembly | 445 |
| 8.11.4 | Field of application | 446 |
| 9. Thermo-chemical treatment and | ||
| protective gas technology | 449 | |
| 9.1 | Carburizing | 451 |
| 9.1.1 | Carbon transfer | 451 |
| 9.1.2 | Kinetics of carburizing | 454 |
| 9.1.3 | Diffusion coefficient for carbon in -iron | 456 |
| 9.1.4 | Carburizing process gas atmospheres | 459 |
| 9.1.5 | Gas carburizing reactions | 461 |
| 9.1.6 | Control of carbon potential | 463 |
| 9.1.6.1 Partial carburizing with carbon monoxide and | ||
| hydrogen (heterogeneous water-gas | ||
| equilibrium) | 463 | |
| 9.1.6.2 Partial carburizing with carbon monoxide | ||
| (Boudouard-equilibrium) | 465 | |
| 9.1.6.3 Carburizing with carbon monoxide with the | ||
| production of oxygen | 469 | |
| 9.1.6.4 Control of the carburizing atmosphere with | ||
| CH4-excess | 470 | |
| 9.1.7 | Carbon activity ac | 471 |
| 9.1.8 | Alloying factor f | 473 |
| 9.1.9 | Protective gas atmosphere | 475 |
| 9.1.9.1 | Stoichiometric calculations | 475 |
| 9.1.9.2 Calculation of composition of protective gas | ||
| atmosphere | 476 | |
| 9.1.9.3 | Homogeneous water gas reaction | 476 |
| 9.1.9.4 | Homogeneous methane reactions | 480 |
| 9.1.9.5 | Boudouard reaction | 480 |
| 9.1.9.6 | Heterogeneous water gas reaction | 481 |
| 9.1.9.7 | Heterogeneous methane reaction | 482 |
| 9.1.9.8 Calculation of composition of a protective gas | ||
| atmosphere | 482 | |
| 9.1.9.9 | Soot | 492 |
| 9.2 | Gas carbonitriding | 496 |
| 9.3 | Gas-nitriding | 496 |
| 9.3.1 | Dissociation ratio | 500 |
| 9.3.2 | Compound layer or "white layer" | 501 |
| 9.3.3 | Nitriding activity | 502 |
| 9.4 | Gas-Nitro-Carburizing | 505 |
| 9.4.1 | Process control | 506 |
| XVIII | ||
| rid leading in induction hardening* for crankshafts | ||
n | ||
| ALFING | ||
MASCHINENFABRIK | ||
| ALFING KESSLER GMBH | ||
| HARDENING EQUIPMENT | ||
| 10. | Appendix | 509 |
| 10.1 Thermal conductivities of solid and gaseous | ||
| materials | 510 | |
| 10.2 Specific heat capacities of solid and gaseous | ||
| materials | 520 | |
| 10.3 | Enthalpies of solid and gaseous materials | 528 |
| 10.4 | Other data for thermoprocess technology | 538 |
| Index | 557 | |
| Index of Advertisers | 569 | |
